Biology & Life Science

 

Biology & Life Science 



What is Biology?

“Biology is defined as the study of living organisms, their origins, anatomy, morphology, physiology, behaviour, and distribution.”

Life is teeming in every corner of the globe – from the frozen Arctics to the searing Sahara. And with over 8.7 million species documented till date, the earth is the only planet in the universe where life is known to exist.


Advancements in technology have opened up even more insights about life and its constituents. For instance, discoveries such as viruses have scrutinized traditional definitions and pushed scientists to look at life from a whole new perspective.

History

Main article: History of biology
A drawing of a fly from facing up, with wing detail
Diagram of a fly from Robert Hooke's innovative Micrographia, 1665

The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.[11][12] Their contributions shaped ancient Greek natural philosophy.[11][12][13][14] Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, Theophrastus, began the scientific study of plants.[15] Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany,[16] and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought.

Biology began to quickly develop with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[17] Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support spontaneous generation. However, Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow were able to reify the third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into cell theory.[18][19]

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.[20] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of common descent.[21]

In 1842, Charles Darwin penned his first sketch of On the Origin of Species.[22]

Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who presented a coherent theory of evolution.[23] The British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.[24][25]

The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865.[26] This outlined the principles of biological inheritance.[27] However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[28] In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 to map the human genome.[29]

Chemical basis

Atoms and molecules


All organisms are made up of chemical elements;[30] oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life.[30] Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

Water

Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water

Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago.[31] Since then, water continues to be the most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in chemical reactions that sustain life.[31] In terms of its molecular structure, water is a small polar molecule with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H2O).[31] Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.[31] This polar property of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water cohesive.[31] Surface tension results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid.[31] Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.[31] Water is denser as a liquid than it is as a solid (or ice).[31] This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby insulating the liquid below from the cold air above.[31] Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher specific heat capacity than other solvents such as ethanol.[31] Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into water vapor.[31] As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions before reforming into a water molecule again.[31] In pure water, the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a pH that is neutral.

Macromolecules

The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d) quaternary structures of a hemoglobin protein

Macromolecules are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or monomers.[34] Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.[35] Carbohydrates include monomers and polymers of sugars.[36] Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include steroids, phospholipids, and fats,[35] largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances.[37] Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an amino acid.[34] Twenty amino acids are used in proteins.[34] Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.[38] Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information.[35]

Divisions of Biology

Anatomy

Anatomy
Biotechnology

Biotechnology
Botany

Botany

 

Ecology

Ecology
Genetics

Genetics
Immunology

Immunology

 

Microbiology

Microbiology
Physiology

Physiology
Zoology

Zoology

Cells

Cell theory states that cells are the fundamental units of life, it a unity of Protoplasm made of cytoplasm and nucleus surrounded by a cell membrane.[39] that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division.[40] Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 micrometers and are therefore only visible under a light or electron microscope.[41] There are generally two types of cells: eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms such as bacteria, whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg.

Cell structure

Structure of an animal cell depicting various organelles

Every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space.[42] A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions.[43] Cell membranes also contains membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell.[44] Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.

Structure of a plant cell

Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.[45] In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units.[46] These organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains most of the cell's DNA, or mitochondria, which generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle. Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.[46] Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles.[46] In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of tubulin (e.g., α-tubulin and β-tubulin whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins.[46] Microfilaments are made up of actin molecules that interact with other strands of proteins.[46]

Metabolism


Example of an enzyme-catalysed exothermic reaction

All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic—the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic—the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of activation energy needed to convert reactants into products. Enzymes also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O2, and fixes CO2 into sugar.

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.[49][50][51] In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.[52]

Photosynthesis has four stages: Light absorption, electron transport, ATP synthesis, and carbon fixation.[48] Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments attached to proteins in the thylakoid membranes. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a quinone designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP+, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex called photosystem I (PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.

Life Science


"Life Sciences" and "Bioscience" redirect here. For the scientific journals, see Life Sciences (journal) and BioScience.
Different kinds of living creatures studied in life sciences
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This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines.

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro-scale (e.g. molecular biology, biochemistry) other on larger scales (e.g. cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience. Life sciences discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, it has provided information on certain diseases which has overall aided in the understanding of human health.

Difference between biology and life science

S.NO

Biology

Life Science

1.

It is a general education course.

It encompasses all branches of science.

2.

It aids in providing the necessary foundation for the various concepts.

It aids in the comprehension of topics at the molecular and cellular levels.

3.

It is a branch of natural science.

It is the scientific study of living things and organisms.

4.

It is a crucial subject.

It is a more basic and applied science.

5.

Biology’s sub-disciplines include zoology, botany, and so on.

Immunology, molecular biology, and other sub-disciplines of life science are examples.

Basic life science branches[edit]

Main article: Outline of biology § Branches of biology
  • Biology – scientific study of life[2][3][4]
  • Aerobiology – study of the movement and transportation of microorganisms[5]
  • Agrostology – the study of grass and grasslike species
  • Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans[6]
  • Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe[7]
  • Bacteriology – study of bacteria
  • Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology[8]
  • Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level[9]
  • Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge[10]
  • Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language.
  • Biological anthropology – the study of humans, non-human primates, and hominids. Also known as physical anthropology.
  • Biological oceanography – the study of life in the oceans and their interaction with the environment.

Applied life science branches and derived concepts

  • Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock
  • Agronomy – the science and practice of utilizing plants and animals for resources
  • Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology.[20]
  • Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.[21]
  • Bioengineering – the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
  • Bioelectronics – the electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field.[22]
  • Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
  • Biomedical science – healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of applied sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology and pathophysiology are medical sciences.
  • Biomonitoring – measurement of the body burden of toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances.[23][24] Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine.[25]
  • Biopolymer – polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (RNA and DNA), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.[26][27][28]
  • Biotechnology – manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology[29]
  • Conservation biology – Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[30]
  • Environmental health – multidisciplinary field concerned with environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science.
  • Fermentation technology – study of use of microorganisms for industrial manufacturing of various products like vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, beer, wine, etc.[31]
  • Food science – applied science devoted to the study of food. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce and conserve these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing.[32][33][34]
  • Genomics – applies recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism).[35][36] The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome.[37] In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.[38][39]
  • Health sciences – are those sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. These two subject matters relate to multiple academic disciplines, both STEM disciplines, as well as emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research), and are both relevant to current health science knowledge.
  • Immunotherapy – is the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".[40] Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies.[41]
  • Kinesiology – Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.[42] Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.[43]
  • Medical device – A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug).[44] Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means.
    Duration: 6 seconds.
    Parasagittal MRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts
  • Medical imaging – Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical or physiological research purposes[45]
  • Optogenetics – Optogenetics is a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time.[46] The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon.[47]
  • Pharmacogenomics – Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.[48] It deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity.[49]
  • Pharmacology – Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action,[50] where a drug can be broadly defined as any human-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.
  • Population dynamics – Population dynamics is the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline.
  • Proteomics – Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.[51][52] Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins,[53] produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.

Conclusion

Biology and life science are two distinct academic fields. Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms, whereas life science is a broader term that encompasses any scientific study of life. Life science, on the other hand, is a broader term that can refer to a variety of disciplines such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Biology is a more rigorous and scientific discipline, whereas life science can be more theoretical and abstract. Biology studies the structure and function of living organisms, whereas life science can cover a broader range of topics, such as the origins of life and species evolution. Life sciences are frequently regarded as a more appropriate field of study for scientists seeking to learn the fundamentals of science as well as applied science and methodology. If you are interested in life sciences, you could study the following: Astrobiology Bioinformatics Physics of Quantum Biology.

References

  1. ^ "Why Study the Life Sciences?". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Archived from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  2. ^ Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. pp. 2–26. ISBN 978-0134093413.
  3. ^ Hillis, David M.; Heller, H. Craig; Hacker, Sally D.; Laskowski, Marta J.; Sadava, David E. (2020). "Studying life". Life: The Science of Biology (12th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1319017644.
  4. ^ Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Biology and the three of life". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0321976499.
  5. ^ "Aerobiology | Definition, History, & Research". The Biologist. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  6.  Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 2–26. ISBN 978-0134093413.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Hillis, David M.; Heller, H. Craig; Hacker, Sally D.; Laskowski, Marta J.; Sadava, David E. (2020). "Studying life". Life: The Science of Biology (12th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1319017644.
  8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Biology and the three of life". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0321976499.
  9. ^ Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015). "A physiologist's view of homeostasis". Advances in Physiology Education. 39 (4): 259–266. doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015. PMC 4669363. PMID 26628646.
  10. ^ Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013). "Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell". Bio Systems. 111 (1): 1–10. Bibcode:2013BiSys.111....1D. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005. PMC 3712629. PMID 23159919

By -
Salunkhe Monika
(B.ed. First Year 2023-24)






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